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PIL can be filed by any public-spirited person, NGO, association, or group without personal interest — all three categories are valid. The key requirement is genuine public interest, not personal gain.
The Doctrine of Pleasure under Article 310 applies to civil servants — they hold office during the pleasure of the President (central) or Governor (state). Subject to safeguards under Articles 311 and 312, they can be removed at the pleasure of the executive.
Articles of Association can be altered only by shareholders passing a special resolution (75% majority). Directors or company officials cannot alter the articles on their own authority. Section 14 of the Companies Act governs this process.
Pick up Constitution of India and turn to Article 361
Look up the referenced provision in Constitution of India to verify the answer.
Article 361 provides protection to the President and Governors from court proceedings during their term of office. No criminal proceedings can be instituted against them, and no civil suit for personal acts can be filed without 2 months' notice.
Pick up Indian Penal Code, 1860 and turn to Section 295A
Look up the referenced provision in Indian Penal Code, 1860 to verify the answer.
Section 295A IPC deals with deliberate and malicious acts intended to outrage religious feelings. Uttering words with deliberate intention to wound religious sentiments falls under this provision, punishable with up to 3 years imprisonment.
Pick up Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and turn to Section 320(1)
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 to verify the answer.
Section 320(1) CrPC lists offences that are compoundable without court permission. Criminal intimidation (S.506 IPC) is compoundable by the person intimidated — meaning the parties can settle without court intervention.
Lok Adalat is considered an innovative form of ADR unique to India. It combines elements of adjudication and mediation — the Lok Adalat bench guides parties toward compromise, and its award is deemed a civil court decree with no appeal.
Under Section 6 of the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956, the natural guardian of a Hindu minor's property is: for a boy/unmarried girl — the father, then mother; for an illegitimate child — the mother, then father. A step-parent is NOT a legal guardian.
The Indian Evidence Act was enacted in 1872 and came into force on 1st September 1872. It was drafted by Sir James Fitzjames Stephen and codified the law of evidence for British India.
Under BCI Rules, an advocate must maintain professional ethics including: not advertising, not soliciting work, maintaining court decorum, keeping client confidences, not acting in conflict of interest, and upholding the dignity of the profession.
Droit administratif is the French system of administrative law where separate administrative courts (not ordinary courts) adjudicate disputes between citizens and the state. India follows the Anglo-Saxon/British system where ordinary courts handle administrative disputes.
The Information Technology Act, 2000 covers cybercrimes in India. It provides for offences like hacking (S.66), identity theft (S.66C), cheating by personation (S.66D), cyber terrorism (S.66F), and publication of obscene material (S.67).
The First Constitutional Amendment Act was enacted in 1951. It added Articles 31A, 31B and the Ninth Schedule to protect land reform legislation from judicial review, and also amended Article 19 to allow reasonable restrictions on free speech.
Pick up Indian Penal Code, 1860 and turn to Sections 107, 109
Look up the referenced provision in Indian Penal Code, 1860 to verify the answer.
A person who instigates another to commit an offence is an abettor under Section 109 IPC. Instigation is one of three forms of abetment (along with conspiracy and intentional aid). The abettor is liable even if the offence is not ultimately committed.
The landmark Habeas Corpus case during the Emergency was ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla (1976). The SC controversially held (4:1) that fundamental rights including Article 21 stood suspended during Emergency. Justice Khanna's sole dissent is historic.
Under the Companies Act, every subscriber to the Memorandum of Association must take at least one share. This mandatory subscription ensures that the founders have financial commitment to the company they are incorporating.
GST (Goods and Services Tax) came into force from 1st July 2017, replacing multiple indirect taxes (excise, VAT, service tax, etc.) with a unified tax system. The 101st Constitutional Amendment provided the constitutional framework.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was the outcome of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Development). It established the framework for international climate negotiations.
Permanent Account Number (PAN) is defined under Section 139A of the Income Tax Act, 1961. Every person whose total income exceeds the taxable limit must obtain PAN. It is a 10-character alphanumeric identifier for tax purposes.
Under Muslim law, a marriage with a woman before completion of her iddat period is irregular (fasid), not void (batil). Iddat is the mandatory waiting period after divorce or husband's death before the woman can remarry.
Pick up Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 and turn to Section 10
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 to verify the answer.
Section 10 CPC provides for stay of suit (res sub-judice). When a previously instituted suit on the same matter between same parties is pending in a competent court, the later suit is stayed to prevent parallel proceedings.
Under Section 118 of the Indian Evidence Act, every person is competent to testify unless the court finds they cannot understand questions or give rational answers due to tender years, extreme old age, disease of body or mind, or similar cause.
In S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994), the SC laid down guidelines for President's Rule under Article 356. It held that Article 356 is subject to judicial review and the President's satisfaction must be based on objective material, not political considerations.
The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification was issued by the Central Government under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It regulates activities in coastal stretches to protect fragile coastal ecosystems.
Under the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, a lawful guardian includes: natural guardian (father/mother), testamentary guardian (appointed by will), and guardian appointed by court. The court-appointed guardian acts under the Guardian and Wards Act, 1890.
A 'protected workman' under Section 33(1) of the Industrial Disputes Act means a workman who is a member of the executive/office-bearer of a registered trade union connected with the establishment. During pendency of proceedings, such workmen get extra protection against discharge/dismissal.
A trademark is a visual symbol (word, name, device, label, numerals, combination of colours) applied to articles of commerce to distinguish them from similar goods of others. It indicates the origin/source of goods and builds brand identity.
Section 89 CPC recognizes four ADR methods: arbitration, conciliation, judicial settlement (Lok Adalat), and mediation. These represent the formal, institutional framework for dispute resolution outside traditional court litigation.
Shah Bano case (1985) was related to maintenance of divorced Muslim women. The SC held that S.125 CrPC (secular maintenance provision) applies to Muslim women, and a divorced Muslim wife is entitled to maintenance from her ex-husband beyond the iddat period.
A garnishee is a third party who is instructed by court order to surrender money or property belonging to a debtor to satisfy a judgment debt. The garnishee order directs the third party to pay the creditor directly instead of paying the debtor.
Pick up Land Acquisition Act, 1894 and turn to Section 18
Look up the referenced provision in Land Acquisition Act, 1894 to verify the answer.
Under Section 18 of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, any person interested who has not accepted the award may require the matter to be referred to the court for determination. This is the mechanism for challenging inadequate compensation.
For specific performance of a contract, the suit must be instituted within the limitation period prescribed by the Limitation Act, 1963 — typically 3 years from the date fixed for performance, or if no date is fixed, when the plaintiff has notice of refusal.
Pick up Consumer Protection Act, 2019 and turn to Section 2(5) CPA 2019
Look up the referenced provision in Consumer Protection Act to verify the answer.
Under the Consumer Protection Act, 'complainant' is defined to include: the consumer, any recognized consumer association, the Central/State Government, one or more consumers with permission of the forum, and legal heirs of a deceased consumer.
Pick up Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 and turn to Order XXXV Rule 1
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 to verify the answer.
Order XXXV CPC deals with interpleader suits — suits where the plaintiff holds property claimed by two or more defendants and has no personal interest in it. Rule 1 prescribes the form of the plaint in interpleader suits.
In Dr. Mary Sheila v. Dr. Vincent (1991), the court held that Family Courts have concurrent jurisdiction with other courts to pass decrees for dissolution of marriage under the Indian Divorce Act. This extended Family Court powers to Christian divorces.
Pick up Advocates Act, 1961 and turn to Section 35
Look up the referenced provision in Advocates Act, 1961 to verify the answer.
Section 35 of the Advocates Act deals with punishment for professional misconduct. The State Bar Council's disciplinary committee can reprimand, suspend, or remove an advocate from the roll after due inquiry.
Pick up Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and turn to Section 239
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 to verify the answer.
Under Section 239 CrPC, in warrant trial cases, if the Magistrate considers the charge groundless after hearing the prosecution and examining the accused, the Magistrate can discharge the accused. This prevents baseless prosecutions from continuing.
Pick up Constitution of India and turn to Article 213
Look up the referenced provision in Constitution of India to verify the answer.
Article 213 empowers the Governor to promulgate ordinances when the State Legislature is not in session, if circumstances require immediate action. The ordinance has the same force as a law passed by the Legislature but must be laid before it when it reassembles.
Under Article 22(2), a person arrested must be produced before the nearest Magistrate within 24 hours of arrest (excluding travel time). Detention beyond 24 hours without Magistrate's authorization is unconstitutional.
Under Muslim law, a Muslim woman who has been divorced and has remarried is not entitled to maintenance from her former husband. Once she enters a new marriage, the previous husband's maintenance obligation ceases completely.
In civil cases, the Indian Evidence Act places the burden of proof on the party who asserts a fact — 'he who asserts must prove.' Under Section 101, the burden lies on the party who would fail if no evidence were given on either side.
Pick up Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and turn to Section 59
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 to verify the answer.
Under Section 59 CrPC, discharge of a person apprehended without warrant relates to the power of the police to release a person on bond or bail when the offence is bailable and the investigation can proceed without detention.
'Industrial dispute' under Section 2(k) of the ID Act means any dispute between employers and workmen, or between workmen and workmen, or between employers and employers, connected with employment or conditions of labour.
For a valid sale under the Sale of Goods Act, the essentials are: parties competent to contract, subject matter (goods), price (money consideration), transfer of property (ownership). The option that is NOT an essential is the answer.
The quote 'Custodial death is perhaps one of the worst crimes in a civilised society' comes from D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal (1997). The SC laid down 11 guidelines for police to follow during arrest and detention.
Pick up Transfer of Property Act, 1882 and turn to Section 52
Look up the referenced provision in Transfer of Property Act, 1882 to verify the answer.
The doctrine of Lis Pendens is given under Section 52 of the Transfer of Property Act. It provides that during pendency of a suit involving immovable property, the property cannot be transferred to defeat the rights of any party to the suit.
Under the Evidence Act, character evidence in civil cases is generally irrelevant (S.52) unless the character of a person is itself a fact in issue. In criminal cases, good character is relevant for the accused (S.53) and bad character may be proved by prosecution (S.54).
Deferred mahr (prompt mahr already paid at marriage) becomes payable at the time of divorce or at the time of death of the husband — whichever occurs first. The wife can demand deferred mahr at any time, and it becomes a debt on the husband's estate.
A dying declaration must be made by the person who is about to die or who has died subsequently. Under Section 32(1) of the Evidence Act, it is the statement of the deceased about the cause of death or circumstances leading to death.
Under Order XX Rule 1 CPC, judgment should be delivered to the parties or their pleaders within 30 days from the date when arguments are concluded. The court must pronounce judgment in open court.
Pick up Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and turn to Section 233
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 to verify the answer.
Section 233 CrPC deals with evidence for prosecution in warrant trial cases. After framing of charge, the prosecution presents its evidence through examination of witnesses, production of documents, and other evidentiary material.
Pick up Indian Penal Code, 1860 and turn to Section 306
Look up the referenced provision in Indian Penal Code, 1860 to verify the answer.
Abetment of suicide is punishable under Section 306 IPC. If any person commits suicide and it is proved that another person abetted the commission of such suicide, the abettor is punished with imprisonment up to 10 years and fine.
Pick up Specific Relief Act, 1963 and turn to Section 5
Look up the referenced provision in Specific Relief Act, 1963 to verify the answer.
Recovery of specific immovable property is defined under Section 5 of the Specific Relief Act, 1963. A person entitled to possession of specific immovable property may recover it in the manner provided by the CPC.
Pick up Wealth Tax Act, 1957 and turn to Section 29
Look up the referenced provision in Wealth Tax Act, 1957 to verify the answer.
Section 29 of the Wealth Tax Act, 1957 deals with the appeals to the Appellate Tribunal. The Wealth Tax Act has since been abolished (2015), but questions based on it may still appear in AIBE covering the pre-abolition period.
Under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, the Collector must give notice to interested persons about the acquisition proceedings. This ensures that landowners know about the proposed acquisition and can participate in compensation proceedings.
Pick up Indian Penal Code, 1860 and turn to Section 80
Look up the referenced provision in Indian Penal Code, 1860 to verify the answer.
This IPC illustration (Section 80) describes a pure accident — A's hatchet head flies off during lawful work and kills someone. Since there was no criminal intent and no negligence, A has committed no offence. It illustrates the defence of accident.
In Delhi Domestic Working Women Forum v. UOI (1995), the PIL exposed the plight of domestic maids who were sexually assaulted by army men. The SC issued directions for compensation and protection of domestic workers from sexual violence.
Pick up Information Technology Act, 2000 and turn to Chapter III
Look up the referenced provision in Information Technology Act, 2000 to verify the answer.
Chapter III of the Information Technology Act, 2000 provides legal recognition to digital signatures. It establishes the framework for electronic authentication, making digital signatures legally equivalent to handwritten signatures.
FIR (First Information Report) under Section 154 CrPC gives information about the commission of a cognizable offence. It sets the criminal law machinery in motion — once an FIR is registered, the police are obligated to investigate.
Under Article 235, control over subordinate courts is vested in the High Court. This includes administrative control over postings, transfers, discipline, and leave of judicial officers in the state judiciary.
Pick up Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 and turn to Section 34
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 to verify the answer.
Section 34 CPC provides for interest — the court may award interest on the principal sum adjudged at a rate the court deems reasonable, from the date of suit to the date of decree, and from decree to realization.
Pick up Consumer Protection Act, 2019 and turn to Section 145 CPA 2019
Look up the referenced provision in Consumer Protection Act to verify the answer.
Under Section 145 of the Consumer Protection Act, provisions relating to offences by companies make the person in charge and responsible for the company's conduct liable along with the company. Directors may also be personally liable.
Pick up Factories Act, 1948 and turn to Section 49
Look up the referenced provision in Factories Act, 1948 to verify the answer.
Section 49 of the Factories Act, 1948 deals with welfare officers. Factories employing 500 or more workers must appoint a welfare officer to look after workers' welfare, handle grievances, and maintain good industrial relations.
Pick up Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 and turn to Section 115
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 to verify the answer.
The word 'case' in Section 115 CPC (revision) has been interpreted broadly to include any proceeding — a suit, appeal, execution, or reference. The revisional jurisdiction extends to all 'cases' decided or disposed of by subordinate courts.
When A finds a purse, discovers it belongs to B, but appropriates it — this is criminal misappropriation under Section 403 IPC. The initial possession was innocent, but dishonest appropriation after discovering the true owner makes it an offence.
'Not possessed of sufficient means' in Order XXXIII Rule 1 (pauper suits) refers to property over which the petitioner has actual control — not theoretical property rights. The court looks at what the person actually possesses and controls.
Pick up Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 and turn to Section 22B
Look up the referenced provision in Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 to verify the answer.
Section 22B of the Legal Services Authorities Act empowers the Central and State authorities to establish Permanent Lok Adalats for pre-litigation settlement of disputes relating to public utility services.
Pick up Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 and turn to Section 152
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 to verify the answer.
Under Section 152 CPC, clerical or arithmetical mistakes in judgments, decrees, or orders may be corrected by the court at any time, either on its own motion or on application of the parties. This is not a review — it's merely correcting obvious errors.
A confessional statement recorded under Section 164 CrPC by a Magistrate must be voluntary. The Magistrate must warn the accused that they are not bound to confess and that any confession may be used against them. Police presence is not allowed during recording.
In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the SC held that Parliament can amend any provision of the Constitution but cannot alter its basic structure. This 'basic structure doctrine' is the most significant constitutional law development in India.
Pick up Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and turn to Section 154
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 to verify the answer.
Section 154 CrPC deals with information in cognizable cases — the FIR provision. The SHO must record information about cognizable offences. For non-cognizable offences, S.155 applies (SHO refers to Magistrate).
Financial relations between Centre and States are defined in the Constitution under Part XII (Articles 264-300A). This covers distribution of revenues, grants-in-aid, borrowing powers, and the Finance Commission.
Mahatma Gandhi was prosecuted under Section 124A IPC (sedition) in 1922 in the famous 'Great Trial' at Ahmedabad. Judge Broomfield sentenced him to 6 years but expressed respect, calling it 'impossible to ignore that you are in a different category from any person I have ever tried.'
This question was withdrawn by BCI as it was improperly drafted. Section 109 CrPC covers security from suspected persons; Section 110 covers security from habitual offenders. The correct answer for S.110 alone would be 'habitual offenders.'
The statement that 'a family because it is joint possesses joint property' is a presumption under the Mitakshara school, NOT Dayabhaga. In Dayabhaga (Bengal school), there is no concept of joint property by birth — property rights arise only on the father's death.
Pick up Consumer Protection Act, 2019 and turn to Section 41 / Appeal provision
Look up the referenced provision in Consumer Protection Act to verify the answer.
Under the Consumer Protection Act, an appeal against an order passed under Section 27 (by the District Forum) lies to the State Commission within 30 days. The appellate hierarchy is: District Forum → State Commission → National Commission → Supreme Court.
The State Bar Council's Disciplinary Committee is the body that awards punishments to advocates for professional misconduct. Under Section 35, it can reprimand, suspend, or remove an advocate from the state roll.
Part III of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 formalizes the law of conciliation. It provides for appointment of conciliators, conduct of conciliation proceedings, settlement agreements, and the legal status of such agreements.
Separation of judiciary from the executive is guaranteed under Article 50 of the Constitution (Directive Principles of State Policy). It directs the State to take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in public services.
In camera trial (trial held in private, not open to public) is conducted in cases involving sexual offences, particularly under Sections 376 (rape) and related provisions. Section 327(2) CrPC mandates in camera proceedings for rape trials.
In the tort of conspiracy, the purpose of the combination must be to cause damage to the plaintiff. Two or more persons combining to injure the plaintiff using unlawful means — the key element is the predominant purpose of causing harm.
Pick up Specific Relief Act, 1963 and turn to Section 31
Look up the referenced provision in Specific Relief Act, 1963 to verify the answer.
Cancellation of instruments is provided under Section 31 of the Specific Relief Act, 1963. Any person against whom a written instrument is void or voidable may sue for its cancellation, and the court may order it if the instrument would cause serious injury if left outstanding.
Unfair labour practices by employers are defined in the Fifth Schedule of the Industrial Disputes Act. They include: interfering with trade union rights, discrimination against union members, refusing to bargain collectively, and victimizing workers.
The limitation period for a suit for compensation for false imprisonment is one year from the date of imprisonment, under Article 76 of the Limitation Act, 1963. This is a relatively short period reflecting the urgency of such claims.
The Rule of Law was defined by A.V. Dicey. It encompasses three principles: (1) supremacy of law over arbitrary power, (2) equality before law — no one above the law, (3) the Constitution is a result of individual rights adjudicated by courts.
There is no specific time limit prescribed for filing an FIR — it should be filed as soon as possible after a cognizable offence occurs. However, delay in filing FIR doesn't make it invalid, though courts scrutinize delayed FIRs more carefully.
Pick up Constitution of India and turn to Article 145
Look up the referenced provision in Constitution of India to verify the answer.
Rules framed by the Supreme Court under Article 145 have the force of law. They regulate SC's own procedure, admission of appeals, conditions for appearance of advocates, and other court management matters. They must not be inconsistent with any Act of Parliament.
Pick up Sale of Goods Act, 1930 and turn to Section 60
Look up the referenced provision in Sale of Goods Act, 1930 to verify the answer.
Section 60 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 deals with anticipatory breach — when a party to a contract for sale repudiates the contract before the due date of performance, the other party may treat the contract as breached and sue for damages.
Pick up Copyright Act, 1957 and turn to Sections 63-70
Look up the referenced provision in Copyright Act, 1957 to verify the answer.
Criminal proceedings against copyright infringement are enabled under Sections 63-70 of the Copyright Act, 1957. Section 63 provides for punishment of offences — any person who knowingly infringes copyright is punishable with imprisonment (6 months to 3 years) and fine.
Pick up Indian Registration Act, 1908 and turn to Section 17
Look up the referenced provision in Indian Registration Act, 1908 to verify the answer.
Section 17 of the Indian Registration Act, 1908 lists documents of which registration is compulsory — including instruments transferring immovable property worth Rs. 100 or more, non-testamentary instruments creating rights in immovable property, and leases exceeding one year.
State Government's power to control road transport is provided under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. Chapter VI deals with control of transport vehicles, including permits, routes, fares, and regulatory powers of the State Transport Authority.
Private rights are individual rights enforceable by the holder personally — property rights, contractual rights, right to reputation. The option that represents a PUBLIC right (like right to clean environment, right to use public roads) is NOT a private right.
Pick up Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and turn to Section 61
Look up the referenced provision in Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 to verify the answer.
Under Section 61 CrPC, a summons in a criminal case must be in writing, in duplicate, signed by the presiding officer or authorized officer. It must state the case number, parties, and the date/time/place of appearance.
Kashmira Singh v. State of Punjab (1978) is a leading case on conviction under Section 302/34 IPC — not dying declaration, admission, or confession. The SC discussed the evidentiary standards for conviction based on circumstantial evidence and joint criminal liability.
Pick up Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 and turn to Section 138
Look up the referenced provision in Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 to verify the answer.
Section 138 NI Act's main objective is recovery of cheque amounts when cheques are dishonoured due to insufficient funds. It creates a criminal liability (imprisonment up to 2 years + fine up to twice the cheque amount) to discourage issuing bad cheques.